|
Astronomy
 Muslims
have always had a special interest in astronomy. The moon
and the sun are of vital importance in the daily life of
every Muslim. By the moon, Muslims determine the beginning
and the end of the months in their lunar calendar. By the
sun the Muslims calculate the times for prayer and
fasting. It is also by means of astronomy that Muslims can
determine the precise direction of the Qiblah, to face the
Ka'bah in Makkah, during prayer. The most precise solar
calendar, superior to the Julian, is the Jilali, devised
under the supervision of Umar Khayyam.
|
The Qur'an contains many references to
astronomy.
"The
heavens and the earth were ordered rightly, and were
made subservient to man, including the sun, the moon,
the stars, and day and night. Every heavenly body moves
in an orbit assigned to it by God and never digresses,
making the universe an orderly cosmos whose life and
existence, diminution and expansion, are totally
determined by the Creator." [Qur'an 30:22]
These references, and the injunctions to learn, inspired
the early Muslim scholars to study the heavens. They
integrated the earlier works of the Indians, Persians
and Greeks into a new synthesis.
Ptolemy's Almagest (the
title as we know it today is actually Arabic) was translated, studied
and criticized. Many new stars were discovered, as we
see in their Arabic names - Algol, Deneb, Betelgeuse,
Rigel, Aldebaran. Astronomical tables were compiled,
among them the Toledan tables, which were used by
Copernicus, Tycho Brahe and Kepler.
Also compiled were
almanacs - another Arabic term. Other terms from Arabic
are zenith, nadir, Aledo, azimuth.
Muslim astronomers were the first to establish
observatories, like the one built at Mugharah by Hulagu,
the son of Genghis Khan, in Persia, and they invented
instruments such as the quadrant and astrolabe, which
led to advances not only in astronomy but in oceanic
navigation, contributing to the European age of
exploration.
|
Geography
Muslim scholars paid great attention to geography.
In fact, the Muslims'
great concern for geography originated with their religion.
The Qur'an
encourages people to travel throughout the earth to see God's signs and
patterns everywhere. Islam also requires each Muslim to have at least
enough knowledge of geography to know the direction of the Qiblah
(the position of the Ka'bah in Makkah) in order to pray five times a
day.
|
Muslims were also used to taking long journeys to
conduct trade as well as to make the Hajj and spread
their religion. The far-flung Islamic empire enabled
scholar-explorers to compile large amounts of
geographical and climatic information from the
Atlantic to the Pacific.
Among the most famous names in the field of geography, even in the
West, are Ibn Khaldun and Ibn Batuta, renowned for their written
accounts of their extensive explorations.
In 1166, Al-Idrisi, the well-known Muslim scholar who served the
Sicilian court, produced very accurate maps, including a world map
with all the continents and their mountains, rivers and famous cities.
Al-Muqdishi was the first geographer to produce accurate maps in
color. Spain was ruled by Muslims under the banner of Islam for over 700 years.
By the 15th century of the Gregorian calendar the
rulership of Islam had been seated in Spain and
Muslims had established centers of learning which
commanded respect all over the known world at that
time. There were no "Dark Ages" such the
rest of Europe experienced for the Muslims in Spain
and those who lived there with them. In January of
1492 Muslim Spain capitulated to Catholic Rome under
King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. By July of the same
year, Muslims were instrumental in helping navigate
Christopher Colombus to the Carribean South of
Florida.
It was, moreover, with the help of Muslim navigators and their inventions that
Magellan was able to traverse the Cape of Good Hope, and Da Gamma and Columbus
had Muslim navigators on board their ships.
|
Humanity
Seeking knowledge is obligatory in Islam for every Muslim, man and
woman. The main sources of Islam, the Qur'an and the Sunnah (Prophet
Muhammad's traditions), encourage Muslims to seek knowledge and be
scholars, since this is the best way for people to know Allah (God), to
appreciate His wondrous creations and be thankful for them.
|
Muslims have always been eager to seek knowledge, both religious and secular, and
within a few years of Muhammad's mission, a great civilization sprang
up and flourished. The outcome is shown in the spread of Islamic
universities; Al-Zaytunah in Tunis, and Al-Azhar in Cairo go back
more than 1,000 years and are the oldest existing universities in the
world. Indeed, they were the models for the first European universities,
such as Bologna, Heidelberg, and the Sorbonne. Even the familiar
academic cap and gown originated at Al-Azhar University.
Muslims made great advances in many different fields, such as
geography, physics, chemistry, mathematics, medicine, pharmacology,
architecture, linguistics and astronomy. Algebra and the Arabic
numerals were introduced to the world by Muslim scholars. The
astrolabe, the quadrant, and other navigational devices and maps were
developed by Muslim scholars and played an important role in world
progress, most notably in Europe's age of exploration.
Muslim scholars studied the ancient civilizations from Greece and Rome
to China and India. The works of Aristotle, Ptolemy, Euclid and others
were translated into Arabic. Muslim scholars and scientists then added
their own creative ideas, discoveries and inventions, and finally
transmitted this new knowledge to Europe, leading directly to the Renaissance. Many scientific and medical treatises, having been
translated into Latin, were standard text and reference books as late as
the 17th and 18th centuries.
|
Mathematics
Muslim mathematicians excelled
in geometry, as can be seen in
their graphic arts,
and it was the great Al-Biruni (who excelled also in
the fields of natural history, even geology and mineralogy) who
established trigonometry as a distinct branch of mathematics. Other
Muslim mathematicians made significant progress in number theory.
|
It is interesting to note that Islam so strongly urges mankind to study
and explore the universe. For example, the Holy Qur'an states:
"We
(Allah) will show you (mankind) Our signs/patterns in the horizons/universe
and in yourselves until you are convinced that the revelation is the
truth." [Qur'an, 41:53]
This invitation to explore and search made Muslims interested in
astronomy, mathematics, chemistry, and the other sciences, and they
had a very clear and firm understanding of the correspondences among
geometry, mathematics, and astronomy.
The Muslims invented the symbol for zero (The word "cipher" comes
from Arabic sifr), and they organized the numbers into the decimal
system - base 10. Additionally, they invented the symbol to express an unknown quantity, i.e. variables like x.
The first great Muslim mathematician, Al-Khawarizmi, invented the
subject of algebra (al-Jabr), which was further developed by others,
most notably Umar Khayyam. Al-Khawarizmi's work, in Latin
translation, brought the Arabic numerals along with the mathematics to
Europe, through Spain. The word "algorithm" is derived from his
name.
|
Medicine
In Islam, the human body is a source of appreciation, as it is created by
Almighty Allah (God). How it functions, how to keep it clean and safe,
how to prevent diseases from attacking it or cure those diseases, have
been important issues for Muslims.
Ibn Sina (d. 1037), better known to the West as Avicenna, was perhaps
the greatest physician until the modern era. His famous book, Al-Qanun
fi al-Tibb, remained a standard textbook even in Europe, for over 700
years. Ibn Sina's work is still studied and built upon in the East.
|
Prophet Muhammad himself urged people to "take medicines for your
diseases", as people at that time were reluctant to do so. He also said,
"God created no illness, except that He has established for it a cure, except for old
age. When the antidote is applied, the patient will recover with the
permission of God."
This was strong motivation to encourage
Muslim scientists to explore, develop, and
apply empirical laws. Much attention was
given to medicine and public health care.
The first hospital was built in Baghdad in
706 AC. The Muslims also used camel caravans
as mobile hospitals, which moved from place
to place.
Since the religion did not forbid it, Muslim scholars used human
cadavers to study anatomy and physiology and to help their students
understand how the body functions. This empirical study enabled
surgery to develop very quickly.
Al-Razi, known in the West as Rhazes, the famous physician and scientist, (d.
932) was one of the greatest physicians in the world in the Middle Ages. He
stressed empirical observation and clinical medicine and was unrivalled as a
diagnostician. He also wrote a treatise on hygiene in hospitals. Kahaf
Abul-Qasim Al-Sahabi was a very famous surgeon in the eleventh century, known in
Europe for his work, Concessio (Kitab al-Tasrif).
Other significant contributions were made in pharmacology, such as Ibn
Sina's Kitab al-Shifa' (Book of Healing), and in public health. Every
major city in the Islamic world had a number of excellent hospitals,
some of them teaching hospitals, and many of them were specialized for
particular diseases, including mental and emotional. The Ottomans were
particularly noted for their building of hospitals and for the high level
of hygiene practiced in them.
|
